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Bacterial defense mechanisms function as a cooperative network rather than as isolated systems. Restriction–modification systems, CRISPR-Cas, and abortive infection systems can act synergistically, providing stronger protection than the sum of their individual effects. Protection is often phage-specific and context-dependent: one system may weaken or delay infection, allowing another to terminate it successfully (17).
Bacteria possess numerous defense mechanisms, and phage host range is influenced by interactions between phages and hosts, interactions among phages the…