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The most promising approaches include (i) modulation of the transforming growth factor-β family, which may play a specific role in bone formation; (ii) blockade of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, which may reduce type 3 immune responses; and (iii) redirection of the biased immune response by cytokines such as IL-2 or IL-27, which may favor an anti-inflammatory response and sustained drug-free remission.
The treatment of axial spondyloarthritis (axSpA) has been for nearly 15 years constricted to non-steroidal antirheumatic drugs and [TNF-alfa inhibitors](brain://dspYYkNm6U2VJ580MJZh7w/TumorNecrosisFactorAlfaTNFalfaAntibodiesTumorNecrosisFactorA…